According to Giambattista Vico , in his selections of the Scienza Nuova, every nation, very civilization and every culture go to three distinct stages in the course of history. These are the Age of gods, the age of heroes and the age of men. The primary focus of this monograph is the Civilization of Rome which flourished in the past and later on declined. In the most dramatic situations, civilizations collapsed totally and are followed by ‘dark ages’ lacking urban life and high achievements in culture and the arts. Social organization may even revert to tribal level.
BIRTH and GROWTH.
The beginnings of Rome are lost in legend. According to legends, Rome was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Rome, abandoned by their wicked uncle to die on the banks of the river Tiber in Central Italy. The boys were rescued by a she-wolf.
According to The World History Encyclopedia (1998), to repay the she-wolf for her kindness, the twins vowed to built a city in her honor. Remus was killed and Romulus became the first king of Rome and gave the city his name. From humble beginnings as a small group of villages, populated by criminals and runaway slaves, Rome grew to become the magnificent capital of the powerful empire the western world had ever seen.
At that time, Rome possessed an extensive territory, a strong army and a wide network of commercial and diplomatic contacts, not only with their Latin speaking towns, but with the peaceful Etruscans states to the North, the Greek colonies in the south and even with the distant Carthage.
Under the republic that was established in 509 BC, power was exercised by two annually elected consuls, who ruled the city and commanded the army. At first, these posts were held almost exclusively by patricians but in the 4th century, wealthy citizens, representing the rest of the population known as plebeians, also sustained access to high office. They had formed their own assembly and elected their own officials called tribunes, to represent them. In 287 BC, the plebeians obtained the right to pass laws in their assemblies and at this point the struggle between the plebeians and patricians finally ended.
In the 4th century BC, the Romans gradually expanded their power. The neighboring peoples whom they conquered were obliged to become allies and fight alongside them in wars. Shortly afterwards, the Romans became involved in a major overseas war, including the Punic Wars in 241 BC and the 2nd Punic War in 218 BC when Hannibal was defeated by the Romans. In the following decades they decisively defeated the major Hellenistic kingdoms in Greece and Asia minor, the whole Mediterranean and Greece.
EXPANSION and DECLINE
At its peak, the Roman Empire extended all around the Mediterannean – into Syria, Israel, parts of Turkey, most of Europe and the Balkan regions. The overseas successes vastly increased the power and wealth of the upper classes, who hastened to invest their gains in large landed estates, worked by war captives imported as slaves. Social tensions thus begin to build up, and the earlier concensus came under increasing strain.
The widening gap between the rich and the poor gave rise to social conflict and political breakdown. In the following generation Rome faced hostile military threats in every part of the empire. Until in 48 BC, Caesar became a consul and dictator for life. Caesar’s monarchial tendencies went against tradition and offended the nobles. On 15 March 44 BC, he was stabbed to death. Later in history, the 19 year old Caesar Octavian (the future Augustus) gained control of the Roman Empire.
The new regime was welcomed by the upper classes, since it brought peace, stability, and a chance to prosper. In the provinces which had suffered dreadfully from civil war, Augustus was hailed as a savior and universal benefactor. He obtained support of the people of Rome.
After his reign, his step son Tiberius took over the control of Rome. The early years of Tiberius's reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterised by paranoia and slander. In 19, he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular Germanicus. In 23 his own son Julius Caesar Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of treason trials and executions. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37.
He was succeeded by Gaius, better known as Caligula . His reign was characterized as cruel. It demonstrated features of mental illness and insanity. His successor, Claudius , who is a conscientious administrator was unpopular in the senate. His death in AD 54 pave the way for the reign of Lucius Domitius Nero . He ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and improving cultural ties with Greece. Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant and the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" in, reference to the Great Fire of Rome (64).
According to Whitehouse and Wilkins (1986), Nero was even suspected of burning the entire city. There are rumors told of his having indulged in a stage performance of the burning of Troy while the fire raged.
The forced suicide of Emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in 31 BC) known as the "year of the four emperors". Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious
THE FALL OF ROME
The Crisis of the Third Century is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. It is also called the period of the "military anarchy".
After Augustus declared an end to the Civil Wars of the 1st century BC, the Empire had enjoyed a period of limited external invasion, internal peace and economic prosperity (the Pax Romana). In the 3rd century, however, the Empire underwent military, political and economic crises and began to collapse. There was constant barbarian invasion, civil war, and hyperinflation. Part of the problem had its origins in the nature of the Augustan settlement. Augustus, intending to downplay his position, had not established rules for the succession of emperors.
In the first few centuries AD, it became clear that the Roman Empire was far too big. There were numerous rebellions in different parts of the empire. In the 1st and 2nd century, disputes about the succession had led to short civil wars, but in the 3rd century these civil wars became a constant factor, as no single candidate succeeded in quickly overcoming his opponents or holding on to the Imperial position for very long. Between 235 and 284 no fewer than 25 different emperors ruled Rome (the Soldier-Emperors). All but two of these emperors were either murdered or killed in battle. The organisation of the Roman military, concentrated on the borders, could provide no remedy against foreign invasions once the invaders had broken through. A decline in citizens' participation in local administration forced the Emperors to step in, gradually increasing the central government's responsibility.
This period ended with the accession of Diocletian. Diocletian, either by skill or sheer luck, solved many of the acute problems experienced during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire.
Military difficulties made increasing demands on the Empire’s finances, which the taxpayers were unable to meet. The government responded by depreciating the currency resulting in inflation. By then, the coinage was worthless and the monetary system of the empire collapsed. In these circumstances, trade and agriculture suffered, land became deserted and banditry flourished. Famines and epidemics reduced the population, and cultural activity virtually ceased. Public buildings in the towns fell into despair.
The monumental decline and fall of the Roman Empire deeply ended the disappearance of an enlightened and rational culture, swept away on tide of barbarism and military revolts.
TIME CHART
753 BC the traditional founding of Rome
C. 509 BC the founding of the Roman Republic
264 – 146 BC the Punic wars between Rome and Carthage in North Africa
49 BC Julius Caesar becomes dictator of Rome
44 BC Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators
27 BC – AD 14 Octavian takes Augustus as name and rules as the first Roman Emperor
AD 14 –37 Tiberius rules
AD 37 – 41 Caligula rules
AD 41 – 54 Nero rules
AD 54 – 68 The rule of the 4 emperors
AD 180 end of the Pax Romana or Roman peace, a time of stability in the empire
AD 268 Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into west and east.
5th Century Barbarians attacked Rome and its provinces
____________________________________________________________________
Sources:
Charlottte, H. (1998). The Romans. World history encyclopedia. (pp. 53 –55) UK: Miles Kelly Publishing Ltd.
Gallagher, B. (2005). Roman Empire. In the Encyclopedia of questions and answers. (p. 238). UK: Miles Kelly Publishing Ltd.
Cornell, Tim. Ed. (1992). Roman Empire. Guinness Encyclopedia of World history. London: Guinness Publishing Ltd.
Whitehouse, R., & Wilkins, J. (1986). The makings of civilization. NY: Alfred A. Knofp, Inc.
Rome. Retrieved 10 July 2008 from http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/history_rome
BIRTH and GROWTH.
The beginnings of Rome are lost in legend. According to legends, Rome was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Rome, abandoned by their wicked uncle to die on the banks of the river Tiber in Central Italy. The boys were rescued by a she-wolf.
According to The World History Encyclopedia (1998), to repay the she-wolf for her kindness, the twins vowed to built a city in her honor. Remus was killed and Romulus became the first king of Rome and gave the city his name. From humble beginnings as a small group of villages, populated by criminals and runaway slaves, Rome grew to become the magnificent capital of the powerful empire the western world had ever seen.
At that time, Rome possessed an extensive territory, a strong army and a wide network of commercial and diplomatic contacts, not only with their Latin speaking towns, but with the peaceful Etruscans states to the North, the Greek colonies in the south and even with the distant Carthage.
Under the republic that was established in 509 BC, power was exercised by two annually elected consuls, who ruled the city and commanded the army. At first, these posts were held almost exclusively by patricians but in the 4th century, wealthy citizens, representing the rest of the population known as plebeians, also sustained access to high office. They had formed their own assembly and elected their own officials called tribunes, to represent them. In 287 BC, the plebeians obtained the right to pass laws in their assemblies and at this point the struggle between the plebeians and patricians finally ended.
In the 4th century BC, the Romans gradually expanded their power. The neighboring peoples whom they conquered were obliged to become allies and fight alongside them in wars. Shortly afterwards, the Romans became involved in a major overseas war, including the Punic Wars in 241 BC and the 2nd Punic War in 218 BC when Hannibal was defeated by the Romans. In the following decades they decisively defeated the major Hellenistic kingdoms in Greece and Asia minor, the whole Mediterranean and Greece.
EXPANSION and DECLINE
At its peak, the Roman Empire extended all around the Mediterannean – into Syria, Israel, parts of Turkey, most of Europe and the Balkan regions. The overseas successes vastly increased the power and wealth of the upper classes, who hastened to invest their gains in large landed estates, worked by war captives imported as slaves. Social tensions thus begin to build up, and the earlier concensus came under increasing strain.
The widening gap between the rich and the poor gave rise to social conflict and political breakdown. In the following generation Rome faced hostile military threats in every part of the empire. Until in 48 BC, Caesar became a consul and dictator for life. Caesar’s monarchial tendencies went against tradition and offended the nobles. On 15 March 44 BC, he was stabbed to death. Later in history, the 19 year old Caesar Octavian (the future Augustus) gained control of the Roman Empire.
The new regime was welcomed by the upper classes, since it brought peace, stability, and a chance to prosper. In the provinces which had suffered dreadfully from civil war, Augustus was hailed as a savior and universal benefactor. He obtained support of the people of Rome.
After his reign, his step son Tiberius took over the control of Rome. The early years of Tiberius's reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterised by paranoia and slander. In 19, he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular Germanicus. In 23 his own son Julius Caesar Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of treason trials and executions. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37.
He was succeeded by Gaius, better known as Caligula . His reign was characterized as cruel. It demonstrated features of mental illness and insanity. His successor, Claudius , who is a conscientious administrator was unpopular in the senate. His death in AD 54 pave the way for the reign of Lucius Domitius Nero . He ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and improving cultural ties with Greece. Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant and the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" in, reference to the Great Fire of Rome (64).
According to Whitehouse and Wilkins (1986), Nero was even suspected of burning the entire city. There are rumors told of his having indulged in a stage performance of the burning of Troy while the fire raged.
The forced suicide of Emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in 31 BC) known as the "year of the four emperors". Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious
THE FALL OF ROME
The Crisis of the Third Century is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. It is also called the period of the "military anarchy".
After Augustus declared an end to the Civil Wars of the 1st century BC, the Empire had enjoyed a period of limited external invasion, internal peace and economic prosperity (the Pax Romana). In the 3rd century, however, the Empire underwent military, political and economic crises and began to collapse. There was constant barbarian invasion, civil war, and hyperinflation. Part of the problem had its origins in the nature of the Augustan settlement. Augustus, intending to downplay his position, had not established rules for the succession of emperors.
In the first few centuries AD, it became clear that the Roman Empire was far too big. There were numerous rebellions in different parts of the empire. In the 1st and 2nd century, disputes about the succession had led to short civil wars, but in the 3rd century these civil wars became a constant factor, as no single candidate succeeded in quickly overcoming his opponents or holding on to the Imperial position for very long. Between 235 and 284 no fewer than 25 different emperors ruled Rome (the Soldier-Emperors). All but two of these emperors were either murdered or killed in battle. The organisation of the Roman military, concentrated on the borders, could provide no remedy against foreign invasions once the invaders had broken through. A decline in citizens' participation in local administration forced the Emperors to step in, gradually increasing the central government's responsibility.
This period ended with the accession of Diocletian. Diocletian, either by skill or sheer luck, solved many of the acute problems experienced during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire.
Military difficulties made increasing demands on the Empire’s finances, which the taxpayers were unable to meet. The government responded by depreciating the currency resulting in inflation. By then, the coinage was worthless and the monetary system of the empire collapsed. In these circumstances, trade and agriculture suffered, land became deserted and banditry flourished. Famines and epidemics reduced the population, and cultural activity virtually ceased. Public buildings in the towns fell into despair.
The monumental decline and fall of the Roman Empire deeply ended the disappearance of an enlightened and rational culture, swept away on tide of barbarism and military revolts.
TIME CHART
753 BC the traditional founding of Rome
C. 509 BC the founding of the Roman Republic
264 – 146 BC the Punic wars between Rome and Carthage in North Africa
49 BC Julius Caesar becomes dictator of Rome
44 BC Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators
27 BC – AD 14 Octavian takes Augustus as name and rules as the first Roman Emperor
AD 14 –37 Tiberius rules
AD 37 – 41 Caligula rules
AD 41 – 54 Nero rules
AD 54 – 68 The rule of the 4 emperors
AD 180 end of the Pax Romana or Roman peace, a time of stability in the empire
AD 268 Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into west and east.
5th Century Barbarians attacked Rome and its provinces
____________________________________________________________________
Sources:
Charlottte, H. (1998). The Romans. World history encyclopedia. (pp. 53 –55) UK: Miles Kelly Publishing Ltd.
Gallagher, B. (2005). Roman Empire. In the Encyclopedia of questions and answers. (p. 238). UK: Miles Kelly Publishing Ltd.
Cornell, Tim. Ed. (1992). Roman Empire. Guinness Encyclopedia of World history. London: Guinness Publishing Ltd.
Whitehouse, R., & Wilkins, J. (1986). The makings of civilization. NY: Alfred A. Knofp, Inc.
Rome. Retrieved 10 July 2008 from http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/history_rome
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